Kristine Le. Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 . The Diabetes Quebec

Kristine Le Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 The Diabetes Quebec Association states that in the past, a diagnosis of diabetes meant certain death. This was held true until a Canadian physician, Frederick Banting, discovered the hormone insulin in 1921. He was able to isolate a unknown matter from the pancreas of a dog and inject it into another dogs pancreas s. This discovery enabled them to save the lives of these diabetic dogs. Through trial and error Banting was able to perfect the purification of insulin in order for it to be injected on a daily basis to compensate for the insulin not being produced by the pancreas to control the blood sugar in hyperglycemic patients. Diabetes mellitus is an inability of the body to catabolize glucose†¦show more content†¦This disease does not favor one gender over the other, it effects males and females equally. Currently, the origin of diabetes is a conundrum. Although, it is understood that the immune system attacks the beta cells but it is not clear how or why it occurs. It is hypothesized that T1D maybe hereditary and environmental factors contribute to the onset (5). Symptoms prevail in individuals whom have the majority of their beta cells destroyed via a cellular mediated autoimmune response (1). The insulin signaling cascade is initiated when insulin binds to insulin receptors located on the cell s surface. The insulin receptor has four subunits: two alpha subunits located on the outside of the cell and two transmembrane beta subunits (3 4). When insulin binds to the alpha subunit receptors, it transmits a signal across the plasma membrane and activates tyrosine residues that are attached to the beta subunits. The activation of the tyrosine residues causes it to autophosphorolate and then phosphorolate other proteins that also have tyrosine residues attached to them. These phosphorylated proteins then move on to trigger cellular responses such as translocation of GLUT4 vesicule to the cell membrane. The vesicule becomes a tr ansporter to allow glucose to come into the cell so that it can continue on and be stored as glycogen (3). A beta cell-specific autoimmune process is the beginning of the destruction of the beta cells that produce insulin.

How Many Atoms There Are in the Human Body

Have you ever wondered how many atoms are in the human body? Heres the calculation and answer to the question. Short Answer There are approximately 7 x 1027 atoms in the average human body. This is the estimate for a 70 kg adult human male. Generally, a smaller person would contain fewer atoms; a larger person would contain more atoms. Atoms in the Body On average, 87 percent of the atoms in the body are hydrogen or oxygen. Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen together account for 99 percent of the atoms in a person. There are 41 chemical elements found in most people. The exact number of atoms of the trace elements varies widely according to age, diet, and environmental factors. Some of these elements are needed for chemical processes in the body, but others (e.g., lead, uranium, radium) have no known function or are toxic contaminants. Low levels of these elements are a natural part of the environment and typically do not cause health problems. In addition to the elements listed in the table, additional trace elements may be found in some individuals. Reference: Freitas, Robert A., Jr., Nanomedicine, http://www.foresight.org/Nanomedicine/index.html, 2006. Atomic Composition of a Lean 70-kg Man Element # of Atoms hydrogen 4.22 x 1027 oxygen 1.61 x 1027 carbon 8.03 x 1026 nitrogen 3.9 x 1025 calcium 1.6 x 1025 phosphorus 9.6 x 1024 sulfur 2.6 x 1024 sodium 2.5 x 1024 potassium 2.2 x 1024 chlorine 1.6 x 1024 magnesium 4.7 x 1023 silicon 3.9 x 1023 fluorine 8.3 x 1022 iron 4.5 x 1022 zinc 2.1 x 1022 rubidium 2.2 x 1021 strontium 2.2 x 1021 bromine 2 x 1021 aluminum 1 x 1021 copper 7 x 1020 lead 3 x 1020 cadmium 3 x 1020 boron 2 x 1020 manganese 1 x 1020 nickel 1 x 1020 lithium 1 x 1020 barium 8 x 1019 iodine 5 x 1019 tin 4 x 1019 gold 2 x 1019 zirconium 2 x 1019 cobalt 2 x 1019 cesium 7 x 1018 mercury 6 x 1018 arsenic 6 x 1018 chromium 6 x 1018 molybdenum 3 x 1018 selenium 3 x 1018 beryllium 3 x 1018 vanadium 8 x 1017 uranium 2 x 1017 radium 8 x 1010

The Monk Vs. Frankenstein - 955 Words

The Monk vs. Frankenstein Whenever Gothic literature is mentioned, most people would consider the novel Frankenstein to fall under this genre. It is viewed as one of most popular and defining novels of Gothic fiction, remaining an icon throughout society until the present day. However, a lesser-known, but equally brilliant novel, also deserves to be regarded as a quintessential Gothic work. The Monk and Frankenstein bear several similarities to each other, which makes them stand out in their Gothic fiction. Despite this, there are enough major differences between the two books that further prove how important they are to the genre. It would be reasonable to begin this essay by comparing the protagonists of both novels, and drawing†¦show more content†¦Earlier in the novel, he tears the incomplete female to pieces right in front of the original monster’s eyes. Likewise, Ambrosio suffocates Elvira and â€Å"[plunges the dagger] twice in the bosom of Antonia twice† out of desperation (Lewis 335). These characters are indeed the protagonists of their novels, challenging the idea that good guys equal protagonists through their motivations, characteristics, and actions. One of the main characteristics that link Victor and Ambrosio are their egos. They want to be worshipped and be revered as idols. Victor’s whole purpose of creating his monster is so â€Å"[a] new species would bless [him] as its creator and source; many happy and excellent natures would owe their being to [him]† (Shelley 43). Victor essentially wants to play God, eventually doing so when he brings his creation to life. Victor wants to be make a breakthrough in science and be the lone discoverer â€Å"so astonishing a secret† (Shelley 41). Ambrosio prides himself with being Madrid’s idol, asserting that â€Å"[religion] cannot boast Ambrosio’s equal† (Lewis 39). He is so full of vanity that he refers to himself in third person. After he has finished his sermon, he gloats privately and indulges his vanity. His pride tells him â€Å"that he [is] superior to the rest of his fellow-creatures† (Lewis 38). The crowd’s reaction to him only boosts his ego as they â€Å"[pronounceShow MoreRelatedHomosexuality in Victorian and Elizabethan Literature.6608 Words   |  27 Pagesand managed to reverse them, making men faint like women, and making women powerful like men, and called it Dracula. Mary Shelley created a a physical being out of a mans suppressed homosexuality due to his Victorian male upbringing; a man named Frankenstein. Robert Stevenson described what happens when a homosexual male attempts to live double lives to cover up his true feelings, and entitled it The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. The Elizabethan era, like the Victorian era, had its own viewRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pages.............................................................................. 299 CHAPTER 10 Deductive Reasoning .......................................................................................... 312 x Implying with Certainty vs. with Probability ................................................................................ 312 Distinguishing Deduction from Induction ..................................................................................... 319 Review of Major

The Concept Development Corporation Case Study Free Essays

Introduction This essay is centred upon the Concept Development Corporation case study in Crawford Di Benedetto, which contains important aspects about launching tangible products and intangible services. The case study would be linked to the product evaluation task in Figure 8.1 in order to ascertain the major differences between the evaluations of tangible goods and services, reasons why these differences existed, and the consequences in relation to the evaluation techniques and methods. We will write a custom essay sample on The Concept Development Corporation Case Study or any similar topic only for you Order Now The major differences that exist between the evaluation of tangible goods (like toys) and services are discussed henceforth. Firstly, the opportunities to deliver tangible products, and their market requirements are easily identifiable and discussed. For instance, in the case study, it was easy to identify that they wanted Toys with minimum expenditure, that would contain an element of education, paper, competition, numbers and the like, and be targeted at children under 12. However, in the writing services, their main aim was to be reactive to whatever clients require and design innovative services that meet industry and business needs. Evaluation of services, identification of its opportunities and its market descriptions are not as precise and clear as they are in product lines. These differences occur as a result of the nature of products and services. Products are physical items and their sales and elements are easily identifiable. For instance, it is easy to know what a toy is and represents, whilst difficult to understand the sort of benefit a writing service would constitute. Secondly, in product evaluations, it is easy to obtain samples of similar competitive products and compare them against the product line being launched. However, in service evaluations, its intangibility makes it difficult to evaluate competing services. Unlike product evaluations that entail looking at sales figures or launching the product in test environments in order to get judgemental responses, service deliveries in contrast usually get immediate responses from customers thus making it easier to evaluate. Preliminary market analyses could be easily conducted on product segments in that sales figures and product sales of own company and that of competitors could be easily obtained, whilst analyses of service elements cannot be obtained except they have a product element in them, feedbacks are obtained, or service prices are analysed. The reasons behind the difference in giving an initial review of product and service lines is because of the level of customer interaction present in service delivery. For instance, when delivering a writing service, the company would need to study clients and understand their requirements and expectations, and based on these expectations, a service delivery opportunity could be established. The interactions with customers make it possible to understand their requirements firsthand and tailor service deliveries specifically to their requirements. However, in product launches, the level of customer interaction is greatly reduced and in some cases inexistent, which makes it difficult to understand what their requirements are until the products have been designed, tested and launched. Thirdly, decisions on whether or not to develop a product could be based on specific and easily identifiable checklists and profile sheets, which could be easily answered. For instance, Concept Development Corporation could easily patent its Toy products, modify its design and score the product idea based on feedback and sales figure obtained. However, services cannot be easily stored, patented, readily communicated or easily reproduced, which make it difficult to decide on whether or not to provide it. But due to the fact that feedback is easily obtainable for services, then it could act as a necessary checklist for the product launch, in that customers could be asked for feedback and further ideas on the service lines, which could then be used in deciding whether or not to provide it. These differences exist typically because of risks inherent in launching services. Several service developments just like product developments require initial investments such as hiring and training s taff, and marketing the products to potential customers. However, in Toy products where there is a tried and tested market for Toys, and key success factors could be easily obtainable through research, the same cannot be said for service development. In developing services, the company needs to identify and understand the customer requirements, and even with that it is not yet certain whether or not the service delivery would be a success. This uncertainty is centred on the fact that the quality of service delivery, and the success of its development, is based on its ability to anticipate customer needs, its interaction with customers, how customers respond to this interaction, and how customers perceive the quality of this interaction. Fourthly, in the Development Phase, which is basically centred on progress reports and decisions on whether or not to develop, product launches entail the development of a tangible product so progress reports, protocol checks, prototype tests, concept tests and product use tests could be very easily ascertained. However, in service launches, there is little or no development, just the development and test of the concept, which is to be the service. For instance in the case study, the corporation intends to establish a writing service, but there is no development process essential, except for the procurement of products required to render this service and ensure it meets customer requirements. These differences exist because it is easier to develop a product prototype and test it, rather than it is to develop a service prototype. There is nothing called a service prototype because a draft or test service cannot be easily developed and tested. This is because for a service to be produc ed and tested, it needs the customer. Therefore if a prototype service were to be designed, it still needs customers for it to be produced and delivered. Therefore, Concept Development Corporation would need to design the writing service and how they intend to deliver it, then deliver a test product to a client, in the hope that the client would provide adequate feedback on the work for the company to know how the service would actually fare. However, in product prototype testing, everything could be done in house. The toys could be developed based on design specifications, and once the prototype is development, it could be tested against specified requirements, checklists and scored appropriately. Making it easier for the company to develop a high quality product. Lastly, the launch phase, which basically entails the testing of the product, is different for products and services. Decisions on whether or not to launch and market a product is centred on speculative sales, testing markets that have been simulated, controlled sales and test marketing, right before a general rollout is implemented. The initial stages before the rollout are utilised in ensuring that the rollout is successful and all necessary information regarding the products are understood and provided for. In service launches decisions on whether to launch a service, and relevant information surrounding that decision, are based mostly on the identification of an opportunity to provide this service, and customer participation in the test service process. The service quality perception is based to a large extent on the expectations of customers, and the manner in which employees affect the service delivery process. Mass production or launches in service lines are difficult. These d ifferences exist because customers are co-producers of the service delivery process, are often co-consumers with other consumers. Both products and services could be tested and simulated in particular markets, while controlled sales are implemented. However, those for products are more precise, objective and easily identifiable compared to services. Concept Development Corp could try delivering writing services to just a few companies initially, just like they could only sell toys in a few markets initially; whilst the feedback obtained from both, in different forms would guide eventually decisions on whether and how to rollout the service. Based on the differences identified and explained in the body of this essay, the likely consequences of these differences on evaluation techniques and methods have been identified. Firstly, the identification of business opportunities and decisions on where to focus efforts are easier for products than for services. The specifications and market descriptions for products are more precise, objective and straightforward, whereas for services, they are usually based on an idea and tailored specifically to the target’s requirements, which is usually not uniform. Secondly, immediate responses are more easily obtainable for service segments due to the level of customer interaction, while relevant market information and preliminary market analyses are easily obtainable for product segments. Thirdly, decisions on whether or not to develop, which are usually based on checklists and scoring models are best for product segments, while for services, it is better to observe and understand customer requirements. Fourthly, protocol checks and prototype testing are more easily done for product launches than for services as they are tangible, easily designed measured and tested, unlike services that are intangible and require an element of customer interaction. Lastly, market testing is different in product and service evaluations, but could be easily done in both. Therefore in conclusion, product and service evaluations differ to a considerable extent due to the intangibility of services and the level of customer interaction required, however, that does not render service evaluations irrelevant in any way. BIBLIOGRAPHY Crawford, C. M., and Di Benedetto, C. A. (2008) New Products Management, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 558pp Hartman, D. E., and Lindgren, J. H. (1993) Customer evaluations of goods and services: implications for services marketing, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 7 (2), pp4 – 15 Zeithaml, V. A., and Bitner, M. J. (2006) Services marketing: integrating customer focus across the firm, McGraw-Hill, 708pp How to cite The Concept Development Corporation Case Study, Free Case study samples

International Students Face in Tertiary Studies-Free-Samples

Question: Discuss about the Challenges that International Students Face In Tertiary Studies. Answer: Introduction The number of international students in several foreign universities is rapidly increasing. This report will focus on the various challenges that the international students are facing during their study in the foreign universities. This resulted in increased number of students who are keen to study abroad. As the contemporary world has experienced digital revolution and globalization, the interaction among various nations and cultures has increased in a significant manner (Staeheli, 2016). However, the large numbers of students who are coming to a new country are struggling to adapt new unfamiliar culture and to become comfortable with the new environment. The cultural shock, the communication gap, distant relationship among students and teachers act as the key drivers in raising the questions (Trueba, Jacobs Kirton, 2014). The other challenges the international students mainly face are related to time management, assessment strategies and finance management. The challenges the international students face in studying abroad: Cultural shock Through their course of study the students are primarily facing the issue related their cultural shock. Culture is the students social behavior, customs or ideas of the community or society he or she belongs (Van Rij, 2017). Cultural shock can be defined as the disturbance or disorientation the students experience by sudden changes in their way of life mainly caused by unfamiliar culture (DSouza et al., 2016). The students come to new country; new culture and treatment they get there also cause them to feel the disturbance. This has been proved all the new members in a new culture experience the cultural shock one way or other. As mostly the international students come to the host countries for a temporary period they struggle more to adapt the new cultural practice. Most European and American countries act as an individualistic and masculine society. Maximum of the international students in the European or American universities come from Asia or Africa (Altbach, 2015). Their cultura l experience is significantly different from that of the culture of Europe or America. The sojourner faces the challenges in the academia when a task is assigned to him and he is instructed to do it in a certain way which he is not used to (Petersdotter, Niehoff Freund, 2017). The new language problem, the ignorance or indifferent reactions from other prevents them from socializing. The international student goes through several stages in his phase of cultural shock. In the denial stage he denies everything that the new culture has to offer as it is totally stranger to him, then he goes through the defense stage where he tries to defend himself from the consequences that caused by the unfamiliar culture. Next he identifies the differences which lead him to the next stage of acceptance, where he realizes that the new culture is not absolutely different rather is a different from of the culture of his own. Then he starts adapting and integrating with the new culture. Finance management The cost for staying and studying in any foreign university is high. The international students go for part time jobs in order to meet their financial needs; however the process of getting a local job often proves to be challenging for them (Lin, 2016). Also there are different rules in each country regarding offering jobs to foreign students. It is not just the financial need for the study their leisure expense, holiday expenses create financial needs which they struggle to meet. Time management As they often opt for part time jobs, they also face challenges managing their time. The international students often fail to balance between their academic life and life outside the campus. The academic curriculum itself is quite time consuming. They initially take more time than the local students in order to adapt the new syllabus. Assessment strategies The assessment or evaluation process in the foreign countries is very different from their own. Assessment strategies are related to the various types of evaluation methods the universities apply to judge the students academic performance. The universities apply diverse range of assessment methods from written exam to area studies, project, field researches, presentation, reports and many others (Brown, Bull Pendlebury, 2013). How the students are performing in groups is also often being measured as part of the assessment. The international students are not generally used to such various methods. The research papers the international students have to prepare are not familiar. They initially face challenges in understanding the structure of the research paper and collecting and applying proper resources and citations. Language barriers Though most of the international students know and speak English well but communicating with the native English speakers often proved to be challenging for them. The international students face difficulties understanding other languages, the dialects of the local students and the local students also feel difficulties understanding the international students (Wu, Garza Guzman, 2015). The local students generally speak fast and often there are some colloquial words which do not make any sense to most international students. Diet Challenges The new environment has great impact on the international students lives. As the new freedom in a foreign land, advanced life style and stress from transition have great impact on the food habit. The international students face challenges in a new country related to the diet change (Yue, Le Terry, 2014). The new food consumption habit leads to obesity and other problems. The international students struggle to adapt and control their food habit in the host countries. They tend to consume foods that are mostly focused in taste and less on the nutrition. Managing the role relationship The relationship between the teachers and the students is different in several countries. The international students coming from a different culture find difficulties in adjusting with the western practice. From countries like China or India usually come with high expectations from the teachers which they often feel are not being satisfied by the teachers. The European and American academic professionals mostly see themselves as student facilitators unlike the teachers in most countries who teach the students whatever they need to do (Lunenberg, Dengerink Korthagen, 2014). The teachers engage more if offering them freedom and creativity by not offering them any direct instructions. The teachers expect more involvement and initiatives from the students. The teachers act as if they are at the same level with the students, who the students can approach and freely talk to. The students are encouraged in open discussion (Burns, 2017). In an ideal classroom the teachers are not only the s ource of knowledge, the teachers expect every student to contribute knowledge significantly. In most other countries the teacher is the active source of knowledge and the students act passively inside the classroom. They do not talk directly to the teachers if they are not asked to. The act of talking or directly participating in the lecture is considered to be disrespectful. The teachers provide them with direct instruction as what exactly they should read and how to apply the learning. The collaborative nature of the teachers is unfamiliar to the international students. The international students get confused regarding what exactly the teachers are expecting from them. As the teachers do not give direct instructions they feel uncertain about how to proceed and continue. They feel the need of directions and that leads them to perform poorly. The international students feel uncomfortable to express their thoughts directly so they mostly feel uncomfortable and remain silent in class activities. Recommendation The universities should adapt better strategies and encourage the international students more. The students from outside must prepare themselves for the coming challenges in a new environment. They must study and analyze the existing problem through an effective communication with ex international students from the same university. The university and the aspiring students should be trained prior to the admission. This will eventually minimize the cultural shock among the new international students. The universities should invest more in the students wellness service. The students must take advice from the nutrition counselors or dietician of the campuses. If the international students having much difficulty with the new food habit or experiencing bad effects on health, they should consider going back to their old food habit and chose a healthy eating plan. The universities must develop communicative learning practices. The students should be engaged orally participating in the classroom and actively participate in direct communication. The international students should communicate more with the local students and academic staff as more conversation will help them to identify the problematic areas. Before the undergraduate or post graduate students join the courses the universities or training institutions organize bridging courses to the aspiring students. The IELTS preparation will help them not only dealing with the language problems but also provide them with necessary knowledge so that the cultural shock gets reduced. Conclusion The host nations also encouraging students from outside as the cross border education has significantly contributing in their economy. The universities are trying to implement effective strategies for the international students are struggling to adapt new unfamiliar culture in their campuses. The universities are getting more engaged in internationalization. The universities are offering the international students more solutions and suggestions on how they should deal with such problems. Adapting the discussed recommendations might improve the situation; however not every problem can be solved just by the universities; the international students should participate actively in the process as well. References Altbach, P. (2015). Foreign study: Patterns and challenges.International Higher Education, (30). Brown, G. A., Bull, J., Pendlebury, M. (2013).Assessing student learning in higher education. Routledge. Burns, A. (2017). Innovating teacher development: Transformative teacher education through classroom inquiry. InInnovative Practices in Language Teacher Education(pp. 187-203). Springer International Publishing. DSouza, C., Singaraju, S., Halimi, T., Sillivan Mort, G. (2016). Examination of cultural shock, inter-cultural sensitivity and willingness to adapt.Education+ Training,58(9), 906-925. Fujimori, D. L., Odo, B. M., Smith, L. E. (2015). Hit the Ground Running: Enhancing International Students Cross-Cultural Adjustment. InInternational Management and Intercultural Communication(pp. 62-74). Palgrave Macmillan UK. Lin, L. (2016).3 Real Reasons Why International Students Can't Find Jobs in the US.HuffPost. Retrieved 22 August 2017, from https://www.huffingtonpost.com/li-lin/3-real-reasons-why-international-students-cant-find-jobs-in-the-us_b_9379568.html Lunenberg, M., Dengerink, J., Korthagen, F. (2014).The professional teacher educator: Roles, behaviour, and professional development of teacher educators. Springer Science Business Media. Petersdotter, L., Niehoff, E., Freund, P. A. (2017). International experience makes a difference: Effects of studying abroad on students' self-efficacy.Personality and Individual Differences,107, 174-178. Staeheli, L. A. (2016, February). Globalization and the scales of citizenship. InGeography Research Forum(Vol. 19, pp. 60-77). Trueba, H. T., Jacobs, L., Kirton, E. (2014).Cultural Conflict Adaptation. Routledge. van Rij, G. (2017).What Is Culture and How Does It Affect Our Daily Lives?.HuffPost. Retrieved 22 August 2017, from https://www.huffingtonpost.com/gabriella-van-rij/part-1-what-is-culture-and-how-does-it-affect-our-daily-lives_b_9607312.html Wu, H. P., Garza, E., Guzman, N. (2015). International students challenge and adjustment to college.Education Research International,2015. Yue, Y., Le, Q., Terry, D. R. (2014). Transition to an unfamiliar environment: International students' living experiences in an Australian regional area.Journal of the Australian and New Zealand Student Services Association (JANZSSA), (23), 10-20.

Cryptography Is The Science Of Encoding A Message Into A Form That Is

Cryptography is the science of encoding a message into a form that is unreadable and making sure only the proper people are capable of decoding the message back into its original form. This is usually done by using an encryption algorithm and a decryption algorithm (these two are often the same) and very often a secret key. Some of the early cryptographic systems did not use a key but instead kept the algorithm itself secret. The message sender uses the encryption algorithm and the key to encode the message, and then sends it to the receiver. The receiver then uses the decryption algorithm and the key to turn back the encrypted message into its original form and read it. If the message is intercepted others, they will only have unreadable data and will have gained nothing, unless they can figure out the decryption algorithm and obtain the key. This is why the key is never to be sent with the message, and has to be kept secret at all cost. If the key is compromised, the sender and the encrypted data is no longer safe. The sender and the receiver then usually agree on a new key to prevent any further damage. In ancient Greece, around 550 Bc, messages were sent encoded to generals and could only be decoded using special staff keys. The key actually consisted of a physical object, which was applied on the message to get the decrypted version of it. In 50 Bc., one of the most simple cryptographic algorithms ever used was the one called the Caesar cipher, that was used by Julius Caesar to send messages to his generals. It consisted simply of switching each letter with the letter that was 3 letters further down the alphabet. For example Stephen would become Vwhskhq. To decrypt the message, the receivers would simply subtract 3 letters from each letter. This algorithm was later improved and called ROT13, where the letters could be shifted to any number between 1 and 25, and the number of letters shifted was the secret key. This very simple algorithm has been used on Usenet successfully to prevent people from inadvertently reading materials they might find offensive. Monoalphabetic substitution is another simple step away from the ROT13 algorithm. In this algorithm, each letter correspond to another letter but in no particular order. For example a = d, d = x, f = e, etc for all 26 letters. This made it much harder to break but also made fairly big keys that couldn't be memorized, since they consisted of 26 pairs of letters. In France during 1585, members of the king's court liked to send romantic or gossip messages to each other and encrypt them for safety, which becomes almost a necessity. Blaise de Vigenere came up with a poly-alpabetic substitution known as the Vigenere cipher. Basically, the algorithm would encrypt messages several letters at a time instead of letter by letter. For example ab = fh, th = sq. To simplify the huge keys it would require, the key was broken into a table and a key, the table was fairly big but the key was small enough to be memorized, and the table was useless without the key. This cipher wasn't totally safe but no totally sure method to break it was developed before early in the 20th century. During World War I, American troops used Native Americans to send messages over the radio, which could only be understood by other native Indians, and almost nobody in Germany could understand it. Also in World War I, the Playfair algorithm was developed by the Allies, the key, like in the Vigenere cipher, is based on a little table and a short keyword, which were both changed periodically. The rules used with the table were much more complex and made it fairly safe. In World War II, however, the Germans gave up on abstract algorithms and came up with a physical encrypting/decrypting machine called the Enigma. It had different wheels of different sizes which were to be tuned differently depending on the date, the different turnings were listed in a little booklet that came with the machine. It wasn't broken before the Allies finally managed to capture enough pieces of

Hamlet Summary, Act-by-Act

Hamlet Summary, Act-by-Act William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet takes place in Elsinore, Denmark after the death of King Hamlet. The tragedy tells the story of Prince Hamlets moral struggle after his father’s ghost tells him that Claudius, Prince Hamlets uncle, murdered the king. Act I The play begins on a cold night with the changing of the guard. King Hamlet has died, and his brother Claudius has taken the throne. However, for the past two nights, the guards (Francisco and Bernardo) have seen a restless ghost resembling the old king wandering the castle grounds. They inform Hamlet’s friend Horatio of what theyve seen. The next morning, the wedding of Claudius and Gertrude, the wife of the late king, takes place. When the room clears, Hamlet soliloquizes on his disgust at their union, which he views as a betrayal of his father at best and, at worst, incest. Horatio and the guards enter and tell Hamlet to meet the ghost that night. Meanwhile, Laertes, the son of the kings advisor Polonius, is getting ready for school. He says goodbye to his sister Ophelia, who is romantically interested in Hamlet. Polonius enters and lectures Laertes extensively on how to behave at school. Both father and son then warn Ophelia about Hamlet; in response, Ophelia promises to no longer see him. That night, Hamlet meets the ghost, who claims to be the ghost of the king- Hamlets father. The ghost says that he was murdered by Claudius, that Claudius put poison in his ear while he slept, and that Gertrude slept with Claudius even before his death. The ghost orders Hamlet to avenge the murder, but not to punish his mother. Hamlet agrees. Later, he informs Horatio and Marcellus, one of the guards, that he will pretend to be mad until he can get his revenge. Act II Polonius sends a spy, Reynaldo, to France to keep an eye on Laertes. Ophelia enters and tells Polonius that Hamlet entered her room in a mad state, grabbing her wrists and staring wildly into her eyes. She also adds that she has cut off all contact with Hamlet. Polonius, certain that Hamlet is madly in love with Ophelia and that it was Ophelias rejection that put him in this state, decides to meet the king to concoct a plan to spy on Hamlet in conversation with Ophelia. Meanwhile, Gertrude has asked Hamlet’s school friends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to try to figure out the cause of his madness. Hamlet is suspicious of them, and he evades their questions. Soon, a theatre troupe arrives, and Hamlet requests that the following night they perform a certain play, The Murder of Gonzago, with a few passages inserted written by Hamlet. Alone on stage, Hamlet voices his frustration about his own indecisiveness. He decides he must figure out if the ghost is truly his father or if it is a specter leading him to sin without reason. Because the play depicts of a king who kills his brother and marries his sister-in-law, Hamlet believes that the performance scheduled for the next night will make Claudius show his guilt. Act III Polonius and Claudius spy on Hamlet and Ophelia as she returns the gifts he gave her. They become confused when Hamlet spurns her, telling her to go to a nunnery. Claudius concludes that the cause of Hamlets madness is not his love for Ophelia, and decides that he should send Hamlet away to England, unless Gertrude can figure out the true cause. During the performance of The Murder of Gonzago, Claudius stops the action just after the scene in which poison is poured into the kings ear. Hamlet tells Horatio he is now certain that Claudius murdered his father. In the next scene, Claudius attempts to pray in church, but his guilt prevents him from doing so. Hamlet enters and readies himself to kill Claudius, but stops when he realizes that Claudius might go to heaven if he is killed while praying. Gertrude and Hamlet have a bitter fight in her bedchamber. When Hamlet hears a noise behind the tapestry, he stabs the intruder: it is Polonius, who dies. The ghost appears again, rebuking Hamlet for his harsh words against his mother. Gertrude, who cannot see the ghost, becomes certain that Hamlet is mad. Hamlet drags Polonius’s body offstage. Act IV Hamlet jokes with Claudius about killing Polonius; Claudius, fearing for his own life, orders Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to bring Hamlet to England. Claudius has prepared letters telling the English king to kill Hamlet when he arrives. Gertrude is told that Ophelia has gone mad with the news of her father’s death. Ophelia enters, sings a number of strange songs, and speaks of her father’s death, insinuating that her brother Laertes will get revenge. Soon, Laertes enters and demands Polonius. When Claudius tells Laertes that Polonius he is dead, Ophelia enters with a bundle of flowers, each one symbolic. Laertes, upset by his sister’s state, promises to listen to Claudius’s explanation. A messenger approaches Horatio with a letter from Hamlet. The letter explains that Hamlet snuck onto a pirate vessel that attacked them; after they parted, the pirates mercifully agreed to take him back to Denmark in return for some favors. Meanwhile, Claudius has convinced Laertes to join him against Hamlet. A messenger arrives with a letter for Claudius from Hamlet, announcing his return. Quickly, Claudius and Laertes plot how to kill Hamlet without upsetting Gertrude or the people of Denmark, with whom Hamlet is popular. The two men agree to arrange a duel. Laertes acquires a poison blade, and Claudius plans to give Hamlet a poisoned goblet. Gertrude then enters with news that Ophelia has drowned, reigniting Laertes’s anger. Act V While digging Ophelia’s grave, two gravediggers discuss her apparent suicide. Hamlet and Horatio enter, and a gravedigger introduces him to a skull: Yorick, the old king’s jester whom Hamlet loved. Hamlet considers the nature of death. The funeral procession interrupts Hamlet; Claudius, Gertrude, and Laertes are among the entourage. Laertes jumps into his sister’s grave and demands to be buried alive. Hamlet reveals himself and brawls with Laertes, exclaiming that he loved Ophelia more than forty thousand brothers could. After Hamlet’s exit, Claudius reminds Laertes of their plan to kill Hamlet. Hamlet explains to Horatio that he read Rosencrantz and Guildenstern’s letters, rewrote one demanding the beheading of his former friends, and swapped the letters before escaping on the pirate ship. Osric, a courtier, interrupts with news of Laertes’s duel. At the court, Laertes takes up the poisoned blade. After the first point, Hamlet refuses the poisoned drink from Claudius, from which Gertrude then takes a sip. While Hamlet is unguarded, Laertes wounds him; they grapple and Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned blade. Just then, Gertrude collapses, exclaiming she has been poisoned. Laertes confesses the plan he shared with Claudius, and Hamlet wounds Claudius with the poisoned blade, killing him. Laertes asks for Hamlet’s forgiveness, and dies. Hamlet asks Horatio to explain his story and declares Fortinbras the next king of Denmark, then dies. Fortinbras enters, and Horatio promises to tell the story of Hamlet. Fortinbras agrees to hear it, declaring that Hamlet will be buried as a soldier.